Gender Discrimination A Male Dominant Society It Is Hard...

In a male dominant society it is hard for a woman’s voice to be heard, and easy for gender inequality to thrive. Women have come a long way from what they were and how they were treated, both in society and under the law, but the discrimination is still significant globally, even in places such as Canada. Under the law we all are the same, no matter what gender, race, or background we come from, but in society women still do not get the respect we deserve. No matter what the law or the Supreme Court of Canada states, women still have to face gender discrimination in the places they work and deal with it against their coworkers. Unfortunately, it doesn’t just end their, because a majority of women face gender discrimination in forms of sexual harassment at least once in their lives. However, gender inequality isn’t always the big things that involve the law, but rather in our everyday lives, such as the restrictions female students have based on the dress code. W ith all this still going on in Canada, it I shard to say that gender discrimination has come to an end. Gender discrimination in a work environment is not an abnormal problem for most women to face on a daily basis. Many women in Canada work in an environment where their male associates are given more opportunities than they are. They are also paid less than their male associates, and face more sexism in the workplace than women who work globally when it comes to the wage gap. In 2012, an employee experiencedShow MoreRelatedBarriers Of Women s Education1349 Words   |  6 PagesBarriers to Women’s Education in Rural Pakistan I had a hard time finding these sources to discuss the issue of women’s education in rural Pakistan because no one really writes about these issues anymore. Often girls in rural areas of Pakistan face barriers in getting education because of the patriarchal mindset of people, gender discriminations against them and social norms restricts their opportunity. Arguments have been made that education is the key for women for their freedom. The definitionRead MoreThe Impact Of Race On The Gender Wage Gap And Women Overall1605 Words   |  7 Pagesthem. This has seen women as undervalued, causing a lot of discrimination and hardship in the workplace for women. Especially for women of color the wage gap is even larger. The pay gap in America affects women of all ages, races, and education levels but what can they do to close it? â€Å"What is the impact on race on the gender wage gap and women overall† is a topic everyone should be informed. I chose this question because one i’m a young woman and as a young women i’m constantly reminded that womenRead MoreThe Male Sex Is Portrayed As More Valuable Than Female Sex1431 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout American history and culture, the male sex is portrayed as more valuable than the female sex. In other words, superior. When you look at the greatest influential leaders, entrepreneurs, politicians, musicians; most of them are men. When you look at the workplace, almost every industry is dominated by males. Sports is also a field mostly dominated by men. The question is why? Many people believe it is because males are physically, mentally, and emotionally more powerful than females whichRead MoreEquality Between Men And Women1824 Words   |  8 Pagesis known to all, women oppressed and gender inequality is a common phenomenon existing in th e class society, different social division of labor pattern determines the men s and women s status in the social production and the function is different, also formed a set of men tying the low, high, male female, male master female from the value of the female and male better judgment system. When social development to the socialism, the present situation of the gender inequality still exists, in the contextRead MoreShirley Chisholm Speech Analysis1189 Words   |  5 PagesShirley Chisholm Analysis Speech In the speech, Equal Rights for Women by Shirley Chisholm, main rhetor in the speech. She is the first African American woman to be elected to Congress. She is part of the House Representative in Washington D.C, from May 21, 1969, to 1983. She entered the primaries for the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1972. Chisholm purpose is to fight for equal rights for all citizens, most specifically women. She wants to help as an advocate by providing moreRead MoreJunot Diaz s The Real Reason Why Diaz 1425 Words   |  6 PagesA unique writer is someone who expresses his or her feelings throughout his narratives. Junot Diaz in my opinion is a unique writer. Growing up in the Dominican Republic, raced only by his hard-working mother, Junot Diaz learned very valuable lessons during his childhood that helped him become who he is today. Junot Diaz writes great stories that allow him to open up his feeling of what it means to be an immigrant from the Dominican Republic througho ut his narratives. Diaz humbleness and compassionRead MoreHow Can Women Expect And Dream Be Successful With Only Half Work? Essay2285 Words   |  10 Pageseighteenth century and still to this day men were and still are seen as dominant, superior, strong, and in charge. They are always thought of when it comes to â€Å"getting a job done†. However, women were always seen as weak, disciplined, and small-minded. It s not so much now as back then, but the stereotype still holds. It’s proven time and time again that women can do as many things men can; but still the stereotype holds. It s a law that all women should be treated equal because indeed we are equal;Read MoreConflicts And Conflict Resolution Process1671 Words   |  7 PagesConflicts are inevitable in any human s’ interaction which makes their occurrence normal in the workplace. Conflict can be caused by imbalance of power and communication barriers that arise from the social structure or individual int erpersonal’ perceptions, assumptions and expectations. The interpersonal conflict has a huge impact on the individual himself and extends to the workplace. The Human Resources (HR) role comes in light to attempt to help in the conflict resolution process. Human resourcesRead MoreState Of The American Dream1524 Words   |  7 Pages State of The American Dream Seroux Alexandre English 1100 Sec. 53 Prof. Sidhu 5 November 2015 1 2 The American Dream is supposed to be a society where every American  ­ regardless of demographical status  ­ has the equal opportunity to be successful through hard work and determination. However, the American Dream, is not accessible to every American. In fact, the vast majority of Americans are deprived of opportunities for one reason or another. Mostly

New Questions About Research Paper Writing Online Answered and Why You Must Read Every Word of This Report

New Questions About Research Paper Writing Online Answered and Why You Must Read Every Word of This Report Here's What I Know About Research Paper Writing Online A research paper writing service must actually deliver work that's interesting enough to earn a great grade. Research paper help Another element which makes students unable to compose an excellent essay in time is the absence of time. For students, paper writing is a crucial portion of their academic career that they need to do during their full educational period. Moreover, by doing your own speech writing, you also improve your writing together with research abilities. High school essay writing is a significant element of academic life and students learn the fundamentals of essay writing with higher school essays. Today, most college students find it difficult to compose an essay on a specific topic. Together with the UK Essay Help undergraduates cannot be concerned about the time but delight in a complete life. It's possible to easily buy unique college essays and don't neglect to tell friends and family about it. Make a rough or a fundamental structure of the essay so that you're able to have an overall idea about what the paper will look like. So when you have an essay assigned that you require help with, you can purchase essay online cheap from us. Therefore feel free when you purchase essay from us. A good example essay is one of the most simple essay forms that are readily available. You have to find a company, in case there are such businesses, which would offer academic writing services. Otherwise, you can acquire expert research paper help through some service providers, if you're still unable to compose a paper by yourself. If you opted to purchase a research paper, and to pay your money, you have earned the very best quality services. Research Paper About Customer Service The increasing number of essay writing services is wholly overwhelming. Who Else Wants to Learn About Research Paper Writing Online? It is essential to understand your work will be checked by an expert ed itor after the writer is done writing it. If you dislike the topic of your paper, it is a very good bet your readers won't enjoy how you write about doing it. If you discover that the writer did not provide precisely what you expected, request a revision, and we'll make the corrections. Our writers could offer you a lot of interesting strategies about how to pick a topic, frame the thesis statement for your research paper and a lot more. There are, obviously, the more you are able to do in order to write much better articles to rank well in search engines. In future, you understand that too cheap websites or too expensive sites aren't the proper areas to look for if you want to purchase decent research paper, therefore carry out some research on the web site you would like to purchase research papers from. There are lots of websites where you can get a research paper. You'll also discover some great pages online. The Demise of Research Paper Writing Online So once you find a customized research paper writing service it is an excellent idea to check into what a company has done previously. If you discover difficulties, you could always contact us through chat, telling us your requirements, and how we can help you. Thus, when you come to us for custom help in speech writing, you understand that you are trying to find help from a very reputable business. You will need to understand how you are able to weed out unprofessional services. You should be quite careful while you purchase research paper. Now you are prepared to purchase your research paper. You ought to be passionate in earning your research paper so you're able to conceive ideas that are useful to your research. Writing last-minute research paper isn't advisable if you'd like to think of a rich content. What Does Research Paper Writing Online Mean? The price provided by them is not so low, but it isn't even worthwhile looking at cheap offers. The caliber of the performance is merely amazing. At any time you give in a personalized research paper to your teacher you have from a customized research paper business that has presented a plagiarized customized research paper, your instructor is likely to bar you for your academic deceit. If you wish to highlight a crucial subject, obtaining a note will cause you to remember a specific detail easily.

White Privilege as it Pertains to White and Minori Essay Example For Students

White Privilege as it Pertains to White and Minori Essay ty College Students My (black) Caribbean students, as a whole, tend to perform much better than my African-American students. Well, consider it over the years, and particularly during slavery, the best and brightest blacks in this country were weeded out. I dont believe that blacks are naturally inferior to whites, however, American blacks are the unfortunate end product of an enforced breeding process that has left them at a mental disadvantage. Racism is often conceived as the summation of prejudice plus power. This does not have to do so much with the number of people in any group, but their access to ideological and material resources (including arms). In an American university environment, these arms may be found in the shape of grades, scholarships and fellowships, the ability of professors to give or withhold positive reinforcement, and the self-images and convictions the students themselves, both white and minority, bring into this setting. The effects of white privilege, a little-acknowledged theory that whites enjoy an invisible package of unearned assets, resonate silently throughout the university system, deployed as subtle psychological hand grenades. White privilege is harmful not only to the minorities it relegates to the sidelines, but damaging to the whites who are either active or passive participants in this ideology. Here is my classroom. It is a 100 level sociology course. I am one of two white students in a class of mostly African-American and Caribbean-American students. The other white student and I, and an older African-American woman, are the only students to speak at least once every session. Our professor knows our names and listens attentively when we speak. This (white) professor has made a point of telling the class that she is politically liberal and interested and educated in many minority cultures. Yet, she rolls her eyes at the rough English spoken by one African-American student and glosses over the hesitant comments of others. It would seem, by the students tacit and silent acceptance of her behavior, that this is de rigueur, par for the course. These days, a college degree serves as one of the few tickets into a socially and economically comfortable lifestyle. College itself, ideally, should vastly increase the knowledge, skills, and capacity for critical thinking in its students. However, in this racially imbalanced society, college is the culmination of a white-weighted education, and often ignores its own participation in long-standing racial injustices and inequities. Minority students are expected to jump headlong into white standards of behavior, without regard for the unique circumstances that render that expectation difficult, if not impossible, to meet. My schooling gave me no training in seeing myself as an oppressor, as an unfairly advantaged person, or as a participant in a damaged culture. I was taught to see myself as an individual whose moral state depended on her individual moral will. My schooling followed the pattern my colleague Elizabeth Minnich has pointed out: whites are taught to think of their lives as morally neutral, normative, and average, and also ideal, so that when we work to benefit others, this is seen as work which will allow them to be more like us (McIntosh, p. 31). Today, this country prides itself on the great strides it has taken to promote racial equality and harmony. Many universities have incorporated diversity training as part of the curriculum. History and literature courses celebrating non-white cultures are prevalent in schools. Additionally, many affirmative action admission policies and scholarship programs are available to minority students. There is no denying that efforts have been made to minimize the gap between white and minority advantages. .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c , .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .postImageUrl , .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c , .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:hover , .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:visited , .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:active { border:0!important; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:active , .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8ee17b9753f48084313d9799ea8e270c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Sir Gawain And Green Knight Essay However, amidst these well-intentioned efforts, white privilege continues to shape the experiences of both white and minority students. Consider the following: Since an individuals self-concept is based upon his experiences and since American society has gone to great lengths to teach the black that he is inferior, it has commonly been accepted that the black has somehow internalized this prevailing valuation and made it his own. The result, according to this formulation, is that the black experiences a deficiency in self-esteem (Baughman, p. 38). This prevailing valuation has a significant impact on the minority student. Many minority students have experienced, based on their .

Microsoft Company

Introduction The contemporary business world is characterized by a high level of competition. Various individuals and groups have engaged in conducting business. This builds up the level of competition as businesses engage in the production of relatively the same goods and services.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Microsoft Company specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This therefore calls for application of strategic measures to keep pace with the competitive market situation. For the sake of this assignment, I will give a critical analysis of Microsoft Company. Much emphasis will be given to aspects such as the company’s overview and the industry of its operation, the company’s major business lines and the company’s competitive strategy and market position. Finally, the company’s use of Information Technology for competitive advantage will be highlighted. Description of the Company and th e Industry in Which It Competes Microsoft is a well known company. It was founded in 1975 by Bill Gates. The company came into being following combined ideas from Bill Gates and Paul Allen, individuals who had interest in computers and programming in particular. The company started as a small organization whose operations were only local. It was later that Bill Gates developed the idea of programming languages and tried some applications that became successful although initially faced with some challenges (Kumar, 2010). It was in 1976 that the Microsoft Company was registered in Mexico City. The company picked so well and this enhanced its growth and development. It was not after long that the company was in a position to extend its operations, selling its products locally as well as internationally. The company grew day by day and developed more advanced and desirable programming languages such as FORTRAIN and COBOL (Kumar, 2010). The growth of the company was accelerated by an inc rease of Personal Computers’ manufacturers in the market. This increased the demand for Microsoft products and hence the need for Microsoft Company to enhance its production strategies to meet the demand. It for instance started an office in Japan in 1978. From this time there was emergence of new developments that put the company at a better position in the market. A major development was that of MS DOS, which paved way to other advanced programs like the windows. It was in the year 1982 that Microsoft Corporation changed its name to Microsoft Inc (Kumar, 2010). Microsoft operates in the software industry. It provides a lot of products and services that are aimed at satisfying the needs of customers in the software industry. In addition to this, the company has diversified its operations in other fields in an effort to enhance its competitive advantage.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This includes Microsoft games which have gained considerable application among people. The industry in which Microsoft operates is highly competitive mainly because of the effects of technological developments making it a necessity to be extremely alert to capture and implement everything new in order to satisfy the ever changing demand of the market. The industry is also characterized by new entries as people and groups wish to be as successful as Microsoft Company (Kumar, 2010). To deal with the competition, Microsoft has engaged in production of products that are of high quality. The company also engages in strategies that are geared towards improving the quality of its products every now and then to satisfy the changing demands of the market. This has been made possible through research and development programs. This is an effort that has bore positive fruits for example attraction of a lot of customers and maintaining their loyalty. Description of the Company ’s Major Business Lines Microsoft is involved in provision of a wide range of products and services to its customers. The major line of business is however in the provision of software related products and services. The company is involved in the provision of servers, office, hardware, windows live, software, Microsoft store and mobile devices among others. Apart from being involved in provision of products, Microsoft has also invested a lot in services provision. Some of the services include, Skype, Microsoft advertising and Microsoft Online services among others (Microsoft, 2011). The provision of these products and services has been the main source of profit to the company. This in turn helps in placing the company in a good position in the market as it is an indication of good performance, an aspect that is desired by all organizations as well as customers. Generally, Microsoft have performed relatively well over the past years. This has led other companies to desire to u tilize the company’s production strategies in an effort to excel in their business operations. This has greatly increased the level of competition in the industry thus necessitating that Microsoft engage in even more strategic measures. A major threat is for example the Linux program which has gained a lot of favour from the customers. However, plans are underway to upgrade Microsoft’s products and enhance it services in order to maintain its competitiveness compared to other companies in the industry. This will be made possible through extensive research. Description of the Company’s Competitive Strategy and Market Position Different companies have different competitive strategies and thus they secure different market positions in the market. Microsoft is competitive enough in its industry of operation and it has secured a good position in the market. Various aspects have been attributed to it competitiveness. For instance, its management is a source of its com petitive advantage.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Microsoft Company specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There is quality leadership at Microsoft. Bill Gates is the company’s chairman while Steve Ballmer is the CEO. Election is usually fair. The share holders have the duty of electing the board of directors. The board of directors is then supposed to hire the presidents, vice-presidents, top executives, treasurer and the secretary. The workforce in Microsoft is very rich in terms of skills and knowledge, making the company to do well in its business operations both locally as well as internationally (Johnson, 2008). Microsoft has a number of strengths, which have significantly contributed to the company’s success. To begin with, the company has a broad global brand. The company has the largest software developer which has a good reputation all over the world. It has a big customer base which is locat ed all over the world. All the products in the Windows line are successful. This has significantly contributed to the company’s success. The company’s strongly developed brand has put it in a position where it is able to cultivate customer loyalty all over the world. Its customers are enthusiastic and act as advocates who always use the company’s products. Therefore, the company has managed to retain its existing customers as well as attracting more. This has contributed to the tremendous growth of the company. Microsoft’s competitive strategy also involves the location of its premises or offices. Microsoft has offices located in different parts around the world. These offices are strategically situated in strategic positions. This has ensured that the company’s products are trendily available to all the customers across the world. For instance, the company has offices in Korea, Europe, China and Germany. This has promoted the availability of its p roducts throughout the world avoiding unnecessary shortages. Diversification of the company’s operations has also enhanced its competitiveness. For instance, the company has recently ventured in other areas like game design and developing. This provides a wide range of opportunities to the company. The company has managed to provide free emails and news to its customers. In addition, it has managed to develop software that is very useful in organizing business spreadsheets and data. This comes at a time when the demand for such software has risen with increased need for efficiency in the contemporary business world. The company’s market position can be understood by looking at its financial status. As already noted, Microsoft has been in the market for a long time. Since its development, the company has recorded good performance. Earlier this year, the company closed its fiscal year in optimistic results.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For the fourth quarter which ended in June 2011, the company’s revenue rose to $ 17.37 billion (Betanews, 2011). This was an eight percent increase over the last one year. Meanwhile, the operating income hit a level of $ 6.17 billion. During this quarter, the company recorded a profit of $ 5.87 billion (Betanews, 2011). The success has not been attributed to a single aspect but rather a combination of factors. The strengths and opportunities are a source of the company’s competitive advantage and good position in the market. For example a strong brand that is well known all over the world. This has enhanced the level of sales and hence increased productivity and profitability. Despite the fact that Microsoft Company has got considerable strengths and opportunities, it is not without some weaknesses and threats. Some of the weaknesses and threats that face Microsoft include; compatibility issues involved in the company’s products. For instance, most of its produc ts are not effectively compatible with many hardware and software produced by other companies. This may discourage customers from buying the company’s products due to the inefficiencies involved. Another weakness of the company is that it has not managed to develop an effective client and service support in the internet. This denies its customers important services in case problems and bugs occur. This threatens the integrity that the company’s products are perceived by its customers. Competitors are a threat to the Microsoft Company. Many companies have engaged in the business of provision of software and other computer related services. This therefore necessitates that Microsoft Company establish and implement strategic measures aimed at maintaining its competitiveness to avoid losing its customers to the competitors. All in all, it is evident that the company has tried to overcome the threats and weaknesses through the reinforcement of their strengths and opportunit ies. Use of Information Technology for Competitive Advantage Information technology is a resourceful tool in an organization. It has been used by various organizations to secure a large share in the competitive market. Effective utilization and implementation of information technology enables an organization and the workforce to be reliable in provision of services to the consumers. This is because it enhances efficiency, effectiveness and economy, an aspect that is extremely crucial in the achievement of high levels of productivity and profitability. Microsoft Company has recognized information technology as a strategic asset and thus, it incorporates it in almost all its practices and processes. One area in which information technology has found application in the company is the accounting section. The company has recognized that information technology can help in solving the problems that were associated with the traditional method of accounting. Information technology has also b een used as a strategic communication tool. This involves communication services such as IP telephony, Microsoft Live Communication Server (LCS) and other Microsoft’s telecommunications infrastructure. Some of the information technology related issues in Microsoft include; Business Application Support, clients services, messaging services, enterprise services, global technology services, corporate security among others (Rasmus, 2008). Microsoft is one of the leading companies that have achieved success through utilization of information technology including advertisement and reaching out clients and suppliers. Conclusion From the above discussion, it is evident that Microsoft Company has performed well over the past and has managed to secure a competitive market position. Its success is attributed to a variety of factors for instance a strong management body, an established brand name, strong and experienced workforce and utilization of information technology among others. Al though it has some weaknesses and it faces some threats, it has been able to overcome this and its financial performance has been excellent over the past. Reference List Betanews. (2011). Microsoft. Web. Johnson, N. (2008). Microsoft Adds Record Number of Employees, Rules Out Acquisitions. Web. Kumar. (2010). An overview of Microsoft and History of Windows. Web. Microsoft. (2011). Top Products. Web. Rasmus, W.D. (2008). Building Strategic Advantage through IT. Microsoft Business Insights. This essay on Microsoft Company was written and submitted by user Harley Shields to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Microsoft Company Microsoft Corporation has been a monopoly in computer operating systems and software market for a long period of time. It has been accused of violating anti-trust laws and using noncompetitive practices to dominate the market. The current market share of Microsoft is large, thus, enabling it to remain a monopoly in the operating systems market for decades.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Microsoft Company specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research has revealed that Microsoft has a 93% market share despite a stiff competition from other technological firms. Competitors, such as Macintosh and Linux have competed with Microsoft for a long period. However, Microsoft has managed to control the largest portion of the market. The declining innovativeness and creativity of Microsoft might have adverse effects on its market share. Microsoft behaves like a monopoly because there are a few innovative competitors in the market. It has used several strategies that other technology firms have failed to execute in order to control and maintain the large portion of its market share. First, it has developed strong relationships with other technological companies to maintain its dominance. For example, it has collaborated with several video and audio streaming companies to extend its monopoly in providing multimedia content to its consumers. Secondly, Microsoft has invested in emerging technology companies to eradicate competition that these companies introduce in the market. This has ensured that technological innovations are in line with Microsoft’s plan for dominance. Thirdly, Microsoft has collaborated with several learning institutions, which have helped retain its dominance in the desktop market. Monopolies usually result from perpetuation of uncompetitive practices by companies or firms that prevent other companies from penetrating the market. It is difficult for other companies to acquire a sizeable market share under prevailing conditions because of entry barriers created by Microsoft. From a legal and economic perspective, Microsoft’s market share is large enough for it to behave like a monopoly. Dead weight loss refers to loss of economic efficiency by a firm, company or organization that is caused by monopoly pricing, taxes or external factors. As such, Microsoft is a dead weight loss to its economy because of several reasons. First, monopolies usually incur great expenses because they spend a lot of money in order to maintain their monopoly in a specific market.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This increases the average total cost of producing a product or service. For example, Microsoft has spent a lot of money in legal battles to maintain their monopoly. Secondly, monopolies attract high taxes from the government. The more costly a product or service is, the higher the tax a firm or corporation pays for the product or service. If Microsoft was not a monopoly, taxes would be lower because competition from other firms would result in cheaper products that would attract lower taxes. The prices of Microsoft’s products could be compared to a private tax that has the same dead weight loss that most government-imposed taxes bear. With current advancements in technology, Microsoft is gradually losing its monopoly. Despite the fact that it earns high profits from its products, Microsoft has been stagnant over the last decade. It is unable to compete effectively in emerging markets, such as development of software for mobile devices due to lack of innovation. Judge Thomas Penfield’s statement that Microsoft enjoys a monopoly is true and valid. Microsoft has a large market share of operating systems that are compatible with most personal computers. In addition, it has established barriers that hinder entry of other companies and has forced consumers to depend on its operating systems due to lack of alternatives. The judge’s ruling validated the claim that Microsoft is a monopoly and controls a large market share. The judge was correct because Microsoft has used anticompetitive strategies in the past to maintain its monopoly. Microsoft integrated its web browser into its operating system in an effort to eliminate competition from other software companies, such as Netscape. Today, it collaborates with other software companies, thus, leading to anti-competitive agreements that eliminate competition from those companies. The ruling of the judge is consistent with the findings of recent studies on the dominance of Microsoft. Microsoft’s monopoly has elicited debates because it has eliminated competition from other companies by using anticompetitive strategies. In addition, its monopoly has harmed consumers because they have no option but to use Microsoft’s browser and other so ftware integrated in their operating system. In addition, the monopoly has resulted in high prices that have also harmed consumers adversely. The conduct of Microsoft of using anticompetitive strategies was intended to suppress competition from companies that produced products that were a threat to its monopoly.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Microsoft Company specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Defenders of Microsoft have always reiterated that current technological advancements have reduced Microsoft’s monopoly. However, they ignore the fact that the judge put such considerations in his ruling. For example, Linux introduced an operating system that failed to quell Microsoft’s dominance in the market. However, with the current trend in the software market, Microsoft’s monopoly may soon be eradicated. Microsoft is no longer innovative as it was in the past decades. The emergence of modern computing necessitates innovation and creativity in order to meet its demands, which Microsoft has failed to do. New entrants into the software market, such as Google are gradually eliminating Microsoft’s dominance. In addition, Microsoft has failed to keep up with the demands of modern age computing, such as the need for software for mobile devices. The development of the Android operating system has presented a blow to Microsoft. Android is open-source software that gives software developers permission in order to adapt it to their needs. Operating systems that are developed by Linux and the Apple are gradually becoming more acceptable for users. Most companies have developed operating systems that perform better than Microsoft’s Internet Explorer does. For example, Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox are some of the best web browsers. They have included features that have improved security and speed when surfing the internet. Microsoft has not improved its browser fo r a long time, and that is one of the causes of its waning popularity among users. Microsoft’s waning dominance of the software and operating systems market is evident from its current struggles to develop applications that guarantee its monopoly in the market. In addition, the ruling by Judge Jackson was a great blow to Microsoft’s dominance. Even though Microsoft currently controls a great portion of the market, its dominance is waning, and in a few years, it will not be a monopoly any longer. The creativity and innovation that are exhibited by emerging technology companies is enough proof that Microsoft will soon lose its dominance and consumers will have more options. Diversity is an important aspect of the operating systems market. This case study on Microsoft Company was written and submitted by user Damarion U. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Documentary vs Fashion Photography essays

Documentary vs Fashion Photography essays Comparing and Contrasting Documentary and Fashion Photography This essay is a study on documentary and fashion photography, and on how they may have similarities and differences. This study will involve the research of photographers who have had the most influence on the two styles of photography, who in their own right have shaped the styles of Documentary and Fashion photography to what we know now. Irving Penn, Nan Goldin, Nick Knight and Patrick Demarchelier are examples of the photographers I will be using for research of this study. Both documentary and fashion photography have a long history, in fact it could be argued that the two styles have been around near the creation of a camera. Fashion photography has most certainly come about since the works of Hill and Adamson in the 1840s, where they shot photographs of models facing away from the camera, the main focus being on the clothes they wore. Both subjects are very broad, and although they can be similar in approach, they also can be on the opposite side of the scale to one another. The argument is that documentary photography is the photographic reproduction of reality and that fashion photography is a manipulated and false view on that very reality. However there is an area between the two where the use of both fashion and documentary photography is apparent. Documentary has been used at times in some fashion photography by replicating the grittiness and the imperfect look of documentary style images, an approach that has been used more and more in pres ent day fashion spreads. Documentary photography on the surface is known mostly as the factual, realistic approach to photography. In James Curtis Making Sense of Documentary Photography, he states that Public and scholarly faith in the realism of the photographic image is grounded in a belief that a photograph is a mechanical reproduction of reality. What he means by this is that most ...

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Managing Culturally Diverse Workplaces Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Managing Culturally Diverse Workplaces - Essay Example Such a tight private schedule may, of course, have consequences for working life. Another aspect of privacy is that Scandinavians are not very extrovert. These unique features of Bosnian employee sallow to say that Ado and his wife Alen require speicla programs and attention of supervisor (Barham and Conway 1998). The main problems faced by people in Bosnia are unstable political situation and cultural diversity (racism) caused by national differences between Bosnia and Herzegovina. Nationalism and civil war state cause people to be suspicious and distrustful. Bosnia suffers from economic crisis and high inflation rates, social and political instability, poverty and low quality of healthcare services. Coming to Brisbane, it is difficult for Ado and his family to adapt to new environment and overcome cultural shock (Brislin, 1993). Bosnian manager is not supposed to publicly reveal his or her feelings - and if he or she does, it should be separated from 'objective' and 'rational' decisions (Brislin, 1993). This means, among other things, that Bosnians are commonly described as 'serious. Bosnian businesspeople describe themselves, among other characteristics, as serious; sensible and silent. The Bosnian disposition to reasonableness, tolerance compromise and modesty also has a negative aspect in that some would argue that a person can discern forces that might work against initiative, risk-taking and, in extension, keep down entrepreneurialism (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1999). 2. The main strategies which would help Ado and his family to overcome cultural shock are cross cultural participation and a special plan for career opportunities, attention to need of the family and relocation assistance. A few minutes of "small talk" can often reduce the stress. Effective administrators know when to slow the pace and talk about nonthreatening subjects. However, not even the most tactful administrators always succeed in establishing trust. A small number of minority approach managers and supervisors in ways that are outright defensive--they use profanity and behave indiscreetly. Such defense mechanisms do not usually reflect faulty personalities. Rather, protection of the ego is normal; but a disproportionate use of defenses indicates a lack of security. Culturally different workers, particularly ethnic minorities, seek to maintain their psychological balance during times of stress in several ways, such as by rationalizations, reaction formation, overcompensation, o r projection. People who believe they are members of an underclass or out-group often develop rigid, persistent, and chronic ego-protection devices (Brake et al 1995). The major determining factor is the quality of interaction among people. The first step in establishing rapport with minority workers is to help them relax. To do so, the administrator must be relaxed. A special attention should be given to accommodation and food of Ado and his family. A company can advise Ado where to buy special food and how to behave in new environment. It is important to familiarize Ado with new cultural traditions and organizational culture, value

Transfer personal statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Transfer personal statement - Essay Example I started reading his business managerial books and articles when I was in grade school. That is when I had the first encounter with global business icons such as Warren Buffet and Richard Branson. This made me develop profound interest in business management and administration. I started seeing everything in a business dimension. For instance, I could try to figure out how I would manage our school football team so that it could bring profit to the school. Though such thoughts seem so imprudent at present, they certainly set the passion and desire to be a global business icon. Being the first born, my parents have a lot of hope in me. They have supported me all through especially in academics. My father has supported and mentored me in all ways and has always hoped that I join USC. At times, he lets me accompany him to the workplace where we would discuss some of the managerial and administrative tasks that he does. I have profound interest in business administration and this is my primary reason for choosing Business administration (Entrepreneurship) as my first major. Additionally, I have business administration skills and background knowledge from personal research and interest. However, I would also do well in International relation (global business) since it also deals with business administration albeit in a global perspective.  Throughout my academics, I always try to balance all the subjects since they are equally important for my career choice. However, the time has come for specialization. Successful students are characterized by diligence and focus. Through personal development and mentorship, I have learned to be persistent and thorough in what I do. I plan to focus on learning and put all my efforts and energy towards achieving academic goals. Having been brought up in a disciplined family set up, I have learned to be disciplined and respectful. I will therefore

It is difficult for the reader Essay Example for Free

It is difficult for the reader Essay This Boys Life, set in America in the 1950’s, is a compelling memoir by Tobias Wolff, whom recreates the frustrations and cruelties faced throughout his adolescence, as he fights for identity and self-respect. During this period of time, America underwent major changes in the political and economic spheres, which in turn were responsible for its social makeover. Society in this time was geared toward family; marriage and children being part of the national agenda. The 1950’s was also an age of male dominance, where even if women worked, their assumed proper place was at home. Throughout the memoir, the protagonist, young Jack Wolff, makes it difficult for the reader to feel much affection towards him, as his actions prove to be troublesome and unruly. However, as the memoir progresses, Jacks struggle reveal the reasons for his actions which sequentially shape his character, providing the readers with understanding and sympathy towards his inexorable situation. The fraudulent lies and deceitful ways of Jack can be frustrating upon the reader; though we come to realise that he does this in order to be accepted by the people around him. Jack also engages in fights  and unfaithfully betrays his best friend Arthur, although it becomes evident that he only does this in order to gain Dwight’s approval of him. The lack of a real father figure in Jack’s life has a profound impact on him and his desperate attempt to develop his identity, which further supports the readers’ emotions of sympathy towards him. Jack lies relentlessly in order to escape the grim circumstances of his childhood. His life is fuelled with emotional neglect and verbal abuse; Dwight, his indignant step father, being the foremost cause. He desires of transforming himself into the person that he truly  wants to be; an image he believes will help him to belong and to be happy. The lies he tells are a constant source of comfort for him, as he relies on them to provide stability and hope in his otherwise unstable life. â€Å"I couldn’t help but try to introduce new versions of myself as my interests changed, and as other versions failed to persuade†, demonstrates an essential part of Jack’s character, as he lies in order to fit in. His identity would change with the different people he met, in order to meet their expectations of him and to obtain their acceptance. This  greatly contributes to the sympathy felt for Jack, as he renders the reality that he finds so difficult to accept as a young boy. Among many other lies throughout the memoir, Jack has the intention of creating a new identity for himself. â€Å"It was truth known only to me, but I believed in it more than I believed in the facts arrayed against it. I believed that in some sense not factually verifiable I was a straight-A student†. At this point, Jack takes his re-creation of identity to a new level. Jack is completely aware of what he is doing, although he does not stop. His incessant lies and then believing that they are the actual truth continuously reoccur throughout the memoir. This serves to show his insecurity of who he was, and his imprudent belief that he had the ability to become something better than what he was. Jacks fabricated attempts to re-create â€Å"new versions† of himself, reveal his instinctive lying nature, thus contributing to the annoyance the readers occasionally feel towards him. However, it becomes clear that Jack is confused; he wants to belong. This misperception, and yearn to fit in explicates why feelings of sympathy by the readers towards Jack are inevitable. Jack is forced to live with his violent stepfather Dwight. Dwight cruelly exercises authority over Jack, in order to create a sense of dominance over him â€Å"Dwight would dump a pile of nuts on the floor of the utility room and put me to work with a knife and pair of pliers until he judged that I’d done enough for the night†. Because of this, Jack is determined to prove to Dwight, himself and the reader that he is not the person Dwight defines him as. Jack is not hurt by Dwight’s accusations that he is a thief and liar because â€Å"I did not see myself that way†. However, when Dwight calls Jack a sissy, Jack thinks of Arthur, who is his best  friend and the biggest â€Å"sissy† in school, and remembers how the word sparked the fight between him and Arthur. Dwight treated Jack differently for a few days; with certain deference â€Å"Dwight took the calls and explained that the papers had been ruined in a fight, adding that his boy Jack hung a real shiner on the Gayle kid. † This was the only time he expressed a genuine interest in Jack that bordered on admiration, rather than disgust. Dwight was always associated with hatred and negativity, but because of this certain deference after he fought, Jack felt a certain connection to him as a father figure. He felt as though he finally impressed Dwight, and even felt loved because of Dwight’s respect towards him. This discloses that Dwight’s actions had significant influence over Jack, as he continued to engage in these violent fights, in order to demonstrate his masculinity to Dwight. Jacks violent nature is driven by his belief that he has to prove his masculinity to Dwight. This attests annoyance within the reader; as Jack claims he â€Å"defined myself in opposition to him†, he ironically shares the traits of Dwight, such as violence and his desire to be regarded as powerful and masculine. However, Dwight’s deference towards Jack after he fought contrastingly draws sympathy for Jack from the readers, as it reveals his desire to belong; his desire to be loved. Jack’s friendship with Arthur plays a significant role in the re-creation of his identity. Arthur was recognised as a â€Å"notorious sissy†, and because of this Jack worried of the social implications it would consequently have on him by being friends with Arthur. â€Å"To put myself in the clear I habitually mocked Arthur, always behind his back, imitating his speech and way of walking, even betraying his secrets†, demonstrates Jacks desperation to acquire acceptance  from others, even if it meant denying a part of himself- a friendship- that actually made him happy at times â€Å"but I had withheld my friendship, because I was afraid of what it would cost me†. Jacks betrayal of Arthur imparts anger in the reader, as he attempts to impress people who are not his real friends. However his confused identity and lack of self-confidence justify his disloyal actions, particularly because of the circumstances he was faced with at such a young age. Parental neglect plays an important role throughout the memoir. This is first evident in  the text when Jack says â€Å"after all, he was in Connecticut and we were in Utah†, signifying the substantial physical and emotional distance between his birth father and himself. Fathers play an important role in their child’s upbringing and development. Due to this lacking in Jacks life, the responsibilities of growing up prove to be difficult for him, evident through his confused identity and troublesome ways. Furthermore, Rosemary’s ex-husband Roy plays a significant role in shaping the way Jack thinks and reasons, particularly from such a young and susceptible age. â€Å"I thought Roy was what a man should be†, reveals Jack’s naivety at  such a young age; as Roy, abusive and indignant, was in fact the complete opposite of â€Å"what a man should be†. Wolff is once again faced with a man, Dwight, who abuses him and sets a terrible example for him. His violent nature plays a major part in Jack’s development, which ultimately forms his identity. Dwight’s actions have such an influence that â€Å"Jack† writes about Dwight’s voice being ever-present in his head and own voice, even as an adult; even as a father. â€Å"I hear his voice in my own when I speak to my children in anger†. The sympathy felt by the readers for Jack is inevitable, as his brutal childhood is left with him for the rest of  his life. Although Jack makes it difficult for the reader to feel much affection towards him on some occasions, the abusive, neglectful and violent experiences he is confronted with at such a young and vulnerable age conveys a sense of understanding, which in turn rouse feelings of sympathy towards young Wolff. Jack lies constantly; whenever he is presented with the opportunity to. This frustrates the reader is some instances. Generally though, reasons for this are understandable, such as his confused identity due to the violent and emotionally unstable life he lives. The violent fights he associates himself with, and the betrayal of his  Ã¢â‚¬Å"best-friend† Arthur, leave the readers in a position to question whether his motives can be justifiable. However, these fights and betrayal are a reflection of his desire to be accepted by others, and the masculine, powerful man Dwight’s expects him to be. The lack of a real father figure largely affects Jack and all aspects of his character, from his deceitful ways, to his violent involvement in fights. Because of this, compassion and sympathy prevails over the occasional frustration felt towards Jack by the readers. In supposition, Jack is a helpless child seeking a happy life; an identity he is truly happy with.

Mcdonaldization: Health In A Fastfood Society Essay -- essays research

McDonaldization: Health in A Fastfood Society   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  McDonaldization, is the term Ritzer derived from the McDonalds' fast food chain to describe the state of our society. Ritzer claims our social institutions have become completely dehumanized in the form of a bureaucracy. Health care is an example of one institution that is characterized by the four components of bureaucracy: efficiency, predictability, control and quantification.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the past, health care was more simplistic in nature. House calls were no unheard of, and doctors knew all of their patients and their families on a personal level. The doctor who delivered your parents would deliver you as well as your future children. Follow-ups were quite normal; doctors were concerned with your progress for their own peace of mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Over time the modern health care system emerged into the bureaucratic organization that it is. All the characteristics depicted by Ritzer are easily seen when one examines health care. From a normal trip to the doctor for a routine check-up or even a specific ailment to rush trip in the emergency room predictability, control, efficiency, and quantification are obvious.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Quantification is easily seen when you first step into a hospital waiting room and a huge sign tells you a number before you are even able to speak to anyone. After waiting a while your number is called, you must give your health card number to the receptionist before continuing. You are then given a file number, which is your only identity for the time you spend within the hospital environment. After seeing the doctor you may come out with a few prescriptions which furthers your nameless ordeal. When you drop nameless ordeal. When you drop into a pharmacy to have a prescription filled the first thing they ask is if you know your prescription number. If you cannot remember it, your actual name is a secondary possibility as a means of identification. Before paying you may have to show your Blue Cross card number or other insurance cards as well, in all it is a very dehumanizing, impersonal process.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Efficiency is another characteristic that is prominent in the hospital situation. To make sure things more smoothly you must call ahead and make an appointment with the reception... ...ike health care workers has come in the face of a demand for efficiency and quantification. It is hard to say who is victimized most by this dehumanization; the doctors who must deny their humanity or their patients who must go to them for treatment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion when one applies the four components of McDonaldization to our present health care system one discovers that they are aptly applicable. Quantification is seen when one thinks about how our medical identity is comprised of a series of different numbers. Efficiency is supposed to occur with phone-in prescriptions and appointments. Control is assured by a doctor's capacity to make life or death decisions. As for predictability it is common knowledge as to what routine one follows to receive treatment. The irrationality is how impersonal and inefficient the whole system can become through overworked doctors and other professionals. The iron cage is how the patients of these stressed doctors feel from these doctors' ignorance and neglect. In all it is true that the health care system is one social institution that does successfully meet all of Ritzer's requirements for a McDonaldized institution.

City & Guilds Essay

1.1Explain the importance of continually improving knowledge and practice. New ways of working are always being developed so it is wise to attend and provide up-to-date learning opportunities for all staff. Also there can be changes to laws, legislation and policy so it is of great importance to make staff aware of these changes so they can reflect them in their practice. 1.2 Analyse potential barriers to professional development. Potential barriers of professional development can be: Not enough funding and other resources provided by the company. oNot enough staff. Staff can’t be expected to work all their work hours and attend extra training on top, this may cause burn out for the staff and also result in them not taking in as much of the training that they should because they are tired. oFear and lack of confidence in learning to additional learning. oLack of time because due to working lots of hours Worry that staff will gain the extra training and then leave the company oLack of flexible working to take into account the extra learning oLack of IT skills 1.3 Compare the use of different sources and systems of support for professional development Within Holme Farm we use our supervision sessions to discuss professional development. This can also be discussed in a group within our staff meetings. Staff can use the supervision to discuss issues regarding their own personal professional development in private if they wish to do so. Group supervision regarding professional development can be held and this can enable staff to identify other members of staff who have that same learning style as themselves thus enabling them to gain help and support from each other. This is the way personally I like to discuss my professional development. Holme farm staffs are offered access to a wide range of literature to enhance their level of understanding of the young people in our care. This way of learning is not suitable for all so individual and group sessions are offered to staff regarding issues that our young people face. This was of learning is a more direct approach as questions can be asked along the way but the benefits of the written literature is that it can be returned to at any time and re read and reviewed. 1.4 Explain factors to consider when selecting opportunities and activities for keeping knowledge and practice up to date. Appropriately identify what learning opportunities workers need for their continuing professional development. Identifying what learning and development needs each worker has and linking job descriptions and carer specifications to relevant training and development. These need to be based on the learning levels of each worker. As a part of the management team I need to make sure that the time when any training or learning opportunities are to take place that all the shifts are appropriately covered and there is nothing thing going on that could cause the training/learning not to take place. For example around the Christmas and summer period when our young people are not in education and extra activities are taking place. 4.1 Compare models of reflective practice. One model of reflection is the ‘Gibb’s Reflective Cycle. This model is a recognised framework for reflection. The Gibbs model consists of six stages to complete one cycle. The cycle begins with a description of the event, the next stage is to analyse our feelings, third is an evaluation of the experience, the fourth stage is for us to analyse the event to make sense of the experience, fifth stage is a conclusion of what else could have been done and final stage is an action plan to prepare if a similar situation should arise again. The Gibbs model encourages us to reflect as individuals. Kolb’s reflective model is centred around changing of information into knowledge. This takes place after a situation has occurred and it involves reflecting on the experience, gaining a general understanding of the concepts encountered during the experience and then testing these general understandings on a new situation. In this way the knowledge that is gained from a situation is continuously applied and reapplied. The Gibbs model has five stages which enable you to break down what has happened and the fully understand how, why and where changes can be made next time around. Kolb’s cycle only has four parts and these are all based on solid facts and not how you feel and the emotions that run alongside a situation whether it be good or bad. Gibbs cycle takes into account you own personal thoughts and feelings. The language that Kolb’s cycle is written in is quite technical and could be quite hard to  understand, whereas Gibbs cycle is written in simple English and is clear to understand what it is asking. Kolb’s Modle of Reflection 4.2 Explain the importance of reflective practice to improve performance. Reflective practice is important, as reflection enables us to improve skills and learn from experiences. This enables better practice in the future. Reflection allows you identify areas of good and bad practice that you may have experienced or observed. When analysing these experiences it is hoped that you learn and improve skills and knowledge. We use reflection as a tool to learn from experiences so that we can understand and develop our knowledge and skills, it helps us as professionals bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Are Babies Prewired For Survival Essay

Are babies prewired for survival? This is a question that has been researched and debated in the psychological world for decades. Standing on the side of nature in the ever going battle of nature vs. nurture, we will discover that babies possess cognitive skill, biological abilities, and physical characteristics that not only allow them to live but to survive in the world as we know it. Answering such questions as: Are newborns able to swim and why do newborns smile back at their parents or react to their mothers’ voice? Babies are born with exactly what it takes to live and communicate their various needs. Beginning with cognitive skill, babies have an innate ability to not only make facial expressions of their desires but also their needs of sustenance. But how is this possible? Using the study of Infant Intersubjectivity, researchers have discovered that â€Å"the infants need for communication animates the initial ‘self-other’ awareness and reception of motiv es and emotions in the intersubjective messages that underlie all languages.† â€Å"Human sense† as (Donaldson 1978) called it (Infant Intersubjectivity: Research, Theory, and Clinical Applications. Colwyn Trevarthen and Kenneth J. Aitken. Article first published online: 7 OCT 2003). Just by watching infants and newborns one can easily see the way these miniature people communicate. By observing the different tones in a cry, the facial expressions changes and or the rhythmic movements used to ask for or repel contact; these are all profound forms of infant communication. When I personally think of this form of communication the term body language come to mind. We are observing and essentially talking to infants through an intrinsic form of body language and the babes self-other awareness. Next, when thinking about the idea of self-other awareness in infants we only need to examine a few things. When you smile at a baby and they smile back, or even when you play peek-a-boo with an infant to watch their face light up with excitement. How about even when the baby gets tired of playing and their expression becomes somber and they eventually cry or become very agitated. These are all examples of self-other awareness. â€Å"†¦long before birth, along with essential peripheral organs of perception and motor expression that will serve in communication by rhythmic facial, vocal, gestural, and body movement signal† (http://www.journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid  =43493&fileId=S0954579497001387. Development and Psychopathology. volume / Issue 04 / December 1997, pp 653-677. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ (About DOI), Published online: 08 September 2000). Effectively, the stages of infant cognitive development can be viewed and explained simply. According to Piaget there are four stages of cognitive development that range from the ages of birth through adulthood. Today we will only focus on two of these stages as they pertain to the ages of birth through the ages of 24 months or two years old. The first stage is the sensorimotor stage which includes and defines the ages from birth to about 18 months of age. This stage is quickly described and defined by the infant only being aware of what’s immediately in front of them, and only interacting with those people, objects or sounds (http://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development Piaget Stages of Development.  ©2005-2015 WebMD, LLC). Looking at Piaget’s studies even at the earliest moments of life an infant utilizes the power of their brains in the forms of basic awareness’s and communication attempts. The second stage of cognitive development is also important to our question of babies being able to survive. Before babies can reach the age of 24 months of age they begin to undergo the second stage known as pre-operational. During this stage the baby has already found object permanence and begins symbolic thought, memory and imagination (Piaget Stages of Development.  ©2005-2015 WebMD, LLC). They also begin to form basic verbal language which may vary according to their environmental factors and parental languages Conclusion References http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1469-7610.00701/abstract;jsessionid=F5BDCE7E9FE5CCB25A2E9FBF4755177E.f03t03 Infant Intersubjectivity: Research, Theory, and Clinical Applications. Colwyn Trevarthen and Kenneth J. Aitken. Article first published online: 7 OCT 2003 http://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development Piaget Stages of Development.  ©2005-2015 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661303001918 On being the object of attention: implications for self–other consciousness. Vasudevi Reddy. TRENDS ON COGNITIVE SCIENCES .Volume 7, Issue 9, September 2003,

First or Second Conditional Explained

First or Second Conditional Explained The first and second conditional in English refer to a present or future situation. Generally, the difference between the two forms depends on whether a person believes that a situation is possible or unlikely. Often, the condition or imagined situation is ridiculous or clearly impossible, and in this case, the choice between first or second conditional is easy: We choose the second conditional. Example: Tom currently is a full-time student.If Tom had a full-time job, hed probably work in computer graphics. In this case, Tom is a full-time student so it is obvious that he does NOT have a full-time job. He might have a part-time job, but his studies demand that he concentrates on learning. First or second conditional? Second conditional because it is clearly impossible. In other cases, we speak about a condition that clearly possible, and in this case, choosing between the first or second conditional is easy again: We choose the first conditional. Example: Janice is coming to visit for a week in July.If the weather is good, well go for a hike in the park. Weather is very unpredictable, but its quite possible that the weather will be good in July. First or second conditional? First conditional because the situation is possible. First or Second Conditional Based on Opinion The choice between first or second conditional is often not so clear. Sometimes, we choose the first or second conditional based on our opinion of a situation. In other words, if we feel something or someone can do something, then well choose the first conditional because believe it is a real possibility. Examples: If she studies a lot, she will pass the exam.They will go on holiday if they have the time. On the other hand, if we feel that a situation is not very possible or that a situation is improbable we choose the second conditional. Examples: If she studied harder, she would pass the test.They would go away for a week  if they had the time. Here is another way of looking at this decision. Read the sentences with the speakers unspoken thought expressed in the parentheses. This opinion shows how the speaker decided between the first or second conditional. If she studies a lot, she will pass the exam. (Janes a good student.)If he worked harder, he would pass the exam. (John doesnt take school seriously.)Tom will take some time off next week if his boss says its OK. (Toms boss is a nice guy.)Frank would take some time off next month  if he could get an OK from his supervisor. (Unfortunately, his supervisor isnt very nice and theres a lot of work to be done next month.) As you can see from the examples above, the choice between the first or second conditional can express someones opinion about the situation. Remember that the first conditional is often called the real conditional, whereas the second conditional is often referred to as the unreal conditional. In other words, the real or conditional expresses something the speaker believes could happen, and the unreal or second conditional expresses something that the speaker doesnt believe could happen. Conditional Form Practice and Review To improve your understanding of conditionals, this conditional forms page reviews each of the four forms in detail. To practice conditional form structure, this real and unreal conditional form worksheet provides a quick review and practice exercises, the past conditional worksheet focuses on using the form in the past. Teachers can use this guide on how to teach conditionals  to introduce and practice the first and second conditional forms in class.

10 Interesting Facts About Radioactive Tritium

10 Interesting Facts About Radioactive Tritium Tritium is the radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen. It has many useful applications. Here are some interesting facts about tritium: Tritium is also known as hydrogen-3 and has an element symbol T or 3H.  The nucleus of a tritium atom is called a triton  and consists of three particles: one proton and two neutrons. The word tritium comes from  Greek the word tritos, which means third. The other two isotopes of hydrogen are protium (most common form) and deuterium.Tritium has an atomic number of 1, like other hydrogen isotopes, but it has a mass of about 3 (3.016).Tritium decays via beta particle emission, with a half-life of 12.3 years. The beta decay releases 18 keV of energy, where tritium decays into helium-3 and a beta particle. As the neutron changes into a proton, the hydrogen changes into helium. This is an example of the natural transmutation of one element into another.Ernest Rutherford was the first person to produce tritium. Rutherford,  Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck prepared tritium from deuterium in 1934 but were unable to isolate it.  Luis Alvarez and Robert Cornog realized tritium was ra dioactive and successfully isolated the element. Trace amounts of tritium occur naturally on Earth when cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere. Most tritium that is available is made via neutron activation of lithium-6 in a nuclear reactor. Tritium is also produced by nuclear fission of uranium-235, uranium-233, and polonium-239. In the United States, tritium is produced at a nuclear facility in Savannah, Georgia. At the time of a report issued in 1996, only 225 kilograms of tritium had been produced in the United States.Tritium can exist as an odorless and colorless gas, like ordinary hydrogen, but the element is mainly found in liquid form as part of tritiated water or T2O, a form of heavy water.A tritium atom has the same 1 net electrical charge as any other hydrogen atom, but tritium behaves differently from the other isotopes in chemical reactions because the neutrons produce a stronger attractive nuclear force when another atom is brought close. Consequently, tritium is better able to fuse with lighter atoms to form heavier ones. External exposure to tritium gas or tritiated water is not very dangerous because tritium emits such a low energy beta particle that the radiation cannot penetrate the skin. However, tritium does pose some health risks if it is ingested, inhaled, or enters the body through an open wound or injection. The biological half-life ranges from around 7 to 14 days, so bioaccumulation of tritium is not a significant concern. Because beta particles are a form of ionizing radiation, the expected health effect from internal exposure to tritium would be an elevated risk of developing cancer.Tritium has many uses, including self-powered lighting, as a component in nuclear weapons, as a radioactive label in chemistry lab work, as a tracer for biological and environmental studies, and for controlled nuclear fusion.High levels of tritium were released into the environment from nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s and 1960s. Prior to the tests, it is estimated only 3 to 4 kilograms of tritium was pres ent on the Earths surface. After testing, the levels rose 200-300%. Much of this tritium combined with oxygen to form tritiated water. One interesting consequence is that the tritiated water could be traced and used as a tool to monitor the hydrologic cycle and to map ocean currents. Sources Jenkins, William J. et al, 1996: Transient Tracers Track Ocean Climate Signals Oceanus, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Zerriffi, Hisham (January 1996). Tritium: The environmental, health, budgetary, and strategic effects of the Department of Energys decision to produce tritium. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research.

Dancing on the Edge of a Volcano (Title), From hiring to harassment, Article

Dancing on the Edge of a Volcano (Title), From hiring to harassment, social media can explode on employers (subtitle) - Article Example However, the data received during this kind of search might lead to a biased opinion about the candidate, and it might be better in the long run not to have all the information available, as many of that kind of data should be irrelevant for the decision making. However, if the employer sees the need to conduct social media research during the hiring process, some guidelines should be put in place. These are important to ensure maximum benefit for business. It is recommended for the research to be carried out by the HR specialists rather than any other manager or supervisor. Also, to ensure unbiased decision about a candidate it is best to have a media check after the initial interview with the individual. If social media check is conducted during the hiring process, then the same process should be applied to all the candidates, to ensure they are in equal position. And finally, if the decision about rejecting a candidate was made based on the findings of the research, the specific r eason for denial should be documented to avoid misunderstanding. Harassment. There should be policies in place that prohibit any form of harassment in the workplace. Usually, those include many possible form of harassment, excluding issues concerning social networks. It is obvious that if the employee engages in social media activity on the behalf of the employer then all the policies should apply. Issues arise on the level of personal social networking during off-work hours. There might be some posts reported to an employer or to the co-worker who might be targeted in it, therefore working relations might suffer. It seems that in this case the employer should intervene for the sake of common good; however, employee’s off-duty activity might be protected by several legal sources, such as the Constitution, work unions, stated off-duty conduct protecting statutes. Therefore, the employer should warn the employee that if personal

Critically discuss whether birth control is good or bad Essay

Critically discuss whether birth control is good or bad - Essay Example The figure below indicates the projected growth rate for the global population. These growth rates have prompted government officials to consider the importance of birth control measures. For many countries, these control measures have already been put in place. The controversy with these measures relate to political, social, and economic considerations for various countries (Worldometers, 2012). This paper will now consider the controversy using various perspectives, including scientific analysis to determine whether or not birth control is good or bad. This paper is being undertaken in order to establish a basis for making decisions on the issue, for policy-makers and for the citizens of the world. Body In general, birth control or contraception is a means of preventing or avoiding pregnancy via artificial methods including the use of condoms and birth control pills or through the use of natural methods like abstinence (Crossway, 2012). The more common and more effective methods in clude: condoms, diaphragm, pills, chemical patches, intrauterine devices, surgical sterilization, and in some extreme cases, surgical abortion. Traditionally, most Christian religions have condemned artificial contraception because they believe that it is against the will of God and that it has potentially moral implications on the unborn foetus (Crossway, 2012). In later years, many of these religions have shifted in their position, accepting some artificial means of contraception as essential methods needed in population control (Crossway, 2012). To date, the Roman Catholic Church still condemns the artificial methods of contraception because they believe that these methods bring harm to the female body and that these methods are tantamount to the killing of an unborn child. Deciding whether or not birth control is good or bad is based on various considerations, mostly in relation to the actual effect of contraception on the body as well as its social and political implications. F irst and foremost, the natural methods of contraception are relatively good, mostly because they work well in preventing pregnancies and they do not impact negatively on the female body (Crossway, 2012). They are also reversible, free, and safe methods of contraception. These methods also do not require surgery, chemicals or other drugs. They can also be used with other methods of contraception. The issue of planning and discipline are the most important hurdles which couples often face with this method because they may not always be disciplined in avoiding intercourse during fertile periods; moreover, their plans in avoiding pregnancy may be subject to human error (Borgman, 2005). Nevertheless, despite these issues, natural forms of birth control are relatively beneficial for couples. Artificial birth control methods however are more controversial because of their moral and medical implications (Borgman, 2005). In general, these forms of contraception are very much effective in pre venting pregnancies; and in the end, they help accomplish the primary goal of controlling the population. One of these artificial methods of contraception is the hormone-based birth control. This hormone-based birth control can cause side-effects on the woman, including headache and nausea (Borgman, 2005). However, for some women, switching brands of birth control can help relieve

Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant on Suicide Essay

Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant on Suicide - Essay Example Whether this number of suicide cases is reasonable or not, it is assumed that when the act was committed and even only at that point, an individual had considered suicide as the most reasonable means of surviving the situation, and that the number of people who accept such an idea may in fact be increasing. The 18th century philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant constructed ethical principles that determined the rightness or wrongness of suicide. The act of suicide is not moral based on the ethical principles authored by Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant. Bentham’s philosophy is defined by the value of the action in terms of utility, which roughly translates as human benefit, and so suicide does not give a person any material benefit in the long run for it almost always results in death. For the British philosopher, the moral basis of an action is how much utility it affords the individual. This translates as pleasure and avoidance of pain according to â€Å"its intensi ty, its duration, its certainty or uncertainty, its propinquity or remoteness† (Perry & Bratham 485). Most people would contend that suicide may bring the individual peace and freedom from any more physical pain as he dies. However, committing suicide is also through pain itself, which is never a benefit to the individual. The intensity and duration of the act of suicide must be equivalent to the intensity and duration of pain that the person will experience. ... After all, there is no guarantee that there is no more spiritual pain and torment in the afterlife even if death meant the cessation of all physical pain. Thus, suicide is not moral because it does not truly give the guarantee that one is freed from pain just because one dies. After all, there is no authentic proof that the afterlife is a life of eternal goodness and pleasure. Moreover, suicide is not moral because it is followed by undesirable circumstances. For Bentham, an act is moral also if it is followed by sensations of the same kind, which is known as fecundity, or if it is not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind, which is known as purity (485). In terms of fecundity, no one can really be sure about suicide as its usual consequence is death. However, based on Bentham’s definition of fecundity, the sensations of pain from suicide may actually be followed by more pain in the afterlife or in the physical life if the person did not actually die. On the other hand, when it comes to purity of action, even if the suicide were painless, there is no guarantee that there is no more pain for the individual in the afterlife. Moreover, there must even be a lot of pain that he would leave in the physical world. There is therefore no escape from pain when it comes to suicide, thus it is not a moral act. Suicide is also not moral because it negatively affects many people. For Bentham, one last basis of the morality of an act is its â€Å"extent† or the number of people who are affected by it (485). This means that the person who dies from suicide leaves behind family members and friends who would grieve his death or who would suffer in this world because of him. For example, if he were a doctor

Effects of Physiological Reproductive Events on Ovary

Effects of Physiological Reproductive Events on Ovary Chapter one Introduction Background The two majors function of the ovary is the differentiation and release of female gametes (oocyte), which can then be successfully fertilised and ensure the survival of species. The ovary is also an endocrine organ that produces steroid hormones that allow the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and supports pregnancy. The mammalian ovary is covered by a single layer of epithelial cells (surface epithelium), which vary in type from simple squamous to cuboidal to low pseudostratified columnar (Anderson et al. 1976). Directly underneath the surface epithelium there is a layer of dense connective tissue known as the tunica albuginea. The mammalian ovary is a heterogeneous organ containing follicles and corpora lutea at various stages of development. The ovarian follicle is the fundamental unit of the ovary, each follicle consists of an oocyte, surrounded by granulosa cells and outer layer of theca cells ( 1.2 Folliculogenesis During embryogenesis, primordial germ cells (PGCS) migrate from the yolk sac through the dorsal mesentery of the hindgut, to the genital ridge. The germ cells then undergo extensive proliferation, and lose their motile characteristics, in addition, somatic cells derived from the mesenchyme of the genital ridge, proliferate as well (Hirshfield 1991). The germ cells cease mitotic division and form association with small numbers of pre-granulosa cells to form primordial follicle (Telfer et al. 1988). The germ cells undergo the first meiotic division and are now called primary oocytes. The oocytes then become arrested in the diplotene stage of prophase I of meiosis until the primordial follicles start to grow and finally reach the ovulatory stage. In the diplotene stage, the oocyte may prepare itself for rapid mitosis and implantation, by producing large amounts of mRNA and ribosomes (Picton et al. 1998). Primordial follicles may be observed from week 22 in the human (Faddy and Gosden 19 95) and week 13 in the cow (van den Hurk and Zhao 2005). The pool of primordial follicles develops during fetal life in some species (e.g primates, ruminants), but in others it develops during the early neonatal period (e.g rodents, rabbits) (Marion et al. 1971). The number of primordial follicles present at birth represents the total population of germ cells available to mammalian females during their entire reproductive life (Kezele et al. 2002), and is believed to serve as the source of developing follicles and oocytes (Eppig 2001). Although recent studies have suggested that postnatal oogenesis may also occur in female mammals (Johnson et al. 2004), they suggested that germline stem cells can repopulate the postnatal ovary and renew the primordial follicle pool. This group subsequently went on to suggest that these cells were derived from bone marrow (Johnson et al. 2005). This has attracted a great deal of attention as well as criticism (Gosden 2004; Byskov et al. 2005; Telfer et al. 2005). This is an ongoing debate but the balance of evidence suggests that renewal is not a major factor in ovarian development (Eggan et al. 2006). In mammals, the number of primordial follicles in the ovaries at birth varies enormously between species, ranging from tens of thousands in mice to millions in humans and domestic species (Gosden and Telfer 1987). These follicles must develop through primordial, primary and secondary stages before reaching the preovulatory stage, and subsequent ovulation (Figure 1.1). Proper follicle development involves maturation of the oocyte, which is surrounded by variable layers of granulosa cells, enveloped by theca cells (Drummond 2005). Granulosa cells provide physical support of the oocyte and mediate signals between the oocyte, outer theca cells and endocrine hormones. Once the pool of primordial follicles has been established, follicles gradually and continually leave the resting pool to begin growth. However, less than 1% of primordi al follicles present at the time of birth of an animal will ever proceed to ovulation (Erickson 1966), with the majority of follicles degenerating by atresia. 1.3 Regulation of early folliculogenesis A critical process in ovarian biology is the transition of the developmentally arrested primordial follicle to the developing primary follicle. Follicular growth may begin at any time during the females life. The primordial follicle contains an oocyte arrested in meiosis I surrounded by flattened somatic cells termed the pregranulosa (Kezele et al. 2002). During onset of primordial follicle growth, flattened pregranulosa cells become cuboidal and begin to proliferate. The enclosed oocyte begins to grow at the same time (Anderson et al. 2000; Clark and Eddy 1975). The growths of both the primordial follicles with oocytes characterize the initiation of the growing phase. The oocytes within the primordial follicles remain quiescent for months to years until they receive the appropriate signals to initiate folliculogenesis and primordial to primary follicle transition. So far, little is known about the molecular mechanisms and extracellular signalling factors that regulate this process. These processes directly affect the number of oocytes available to a female throughout her reproductive life. Once the pool of primordial follicles is depleted, ovarian steroidogenesis ends and the series of physiological changes called menopause begins (Richardson et al. 1987). It is unclear whether the signals originate from the oocyte, or/and from surrounding somatic cells, or from outside the ovary. It is also unknown if it is an inhibitory factor preventing resting primordial follicles from leaving the stock or a stimulus acting on the resting primordial follicles store that stimulates some follicle to leave it (Gougeon and Busso 2000). A multitude of factors may act locally to regulate early folliculogenesis by promoting growth (Bennett et al. 1996) or by inhibiting growth (Bukovsky et al. 1995). The initial growth signal appears to be independent of the pitui tary gonadotropins (Peters et al. 1975) (Figure 1.3). Primordial follicles do not possess receptors for FSH hormone (Oktay et al. 1997). Despite some studies suggesting that gonadotropins are involved in the initiation of follicular growth in immature rodents (Lintern-Moore 1977; Neal and Baker 1973), nevertheless, during natural hypopituitary conditions in both animal species and humans, the initiation process is not completely abolished (Howe et al. 1978; Halpin et al. 1986). Although follicles at early stages of development have been shown to express follicle stimulating hormone receptors (FSH-R) (Bao et al. 1998), in the absence of gonadotropins during the early stages of follicle growth, follicles can still develop to the early antral stage (Awotwi et al. 1984; Gong et al. 1996). Knockout mice who are null mutants for either FSH receptor or LH receptor are able to undergo the primordial to primary follicle transition (Zhang et al. 2001; Abel et al. 2000). Several local factors have been found that can regulate the primordial to primary follicle transition. Bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) has been shown to promote the primordial to primary follicle transition and to increase granulosa cell proliferation (Lee et al. 2001). Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) has also been shown to promote the primordial to primary follicle transition and to up-regulate granulosa cell expression of kit ligand (KL) (Nilsson et al. 2002). Bone morphogenic protein-15 (BMP-15) is a growth factor expressed in the oocytes of developing follicles that plays a role in early follicle progression (Dube et al. 1998) and stimulates granulosa cell proliferation (Otsuka et al. 2000). Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) has been localized inthe oocytes of mouse (Dong et al. 1996) rat (Jaatinen et al. 1999) and human (Aaltonen et al. 1999) primary follicles. Nilsson and Skinner (2002) have shown that GDF-9 promotesthe development of primary follicles in neonatal r at ovaries,but it has no effect on the growth of primordial follicles (Nilsson and Skinner 2002).Studies by Wang and Roy (2004) have provided the first evidence that GDF-9 can promote the formation of primordialfollicles and their subsequent growth in neonatal hamster ovaries (Wang and Roy 2004) . Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) is a member of the transforming growth factor- ÃŽ ² (TGF-ÃŽ ²) is considered as a negative regulator of the early stages of follicular development. AMH is produced by the granulosa cells of developing preantral and small antral follicles which inhibits the primordial to primary follicle transition (Durlinger et al. 1999). AMH is never found in primordial follicles, theca cells or oocytes (Ueno et al. 1989; Hirobe et al. 1994; Baarends et al. 1995). Examination of ovarian follicles in AMH-deficient female mice revealed lower numbers of primordial follicles and more growing follicles compared with wild-type mice, these findings revealed that, in the absence of AMH, ovaries are depleted of their primordial follicles earlier than they are in control mice and these observations led to the propsal that AMH inhibits primordial follicle recruitment (Durlinger et al. 1999). Results were obtained from another in vitro experiments on the bovine ovarian cortex sugges ted that, at least in nonhuman species, the presence of AMH acts as a brake on the activation of primordial follicles and the growth of preantral follicles (Gigli et al. 2005). It has been demonstrated that oocytes from early preantral, late preantral and preovulatory follicles up-regulate AMH mRNA levels in granulosa cells, in a fashion that is dependent upon the developmental stage of the oocyte (Salmon et al. 2004). These findings suggest that oocyte regulation of AMH expression may play a role in intra- and interfollicular coordination of follicle development. ; kit ligand (KL) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) secreted by pre-granulosa cells and oocyte respectively, have mutual stimulatory effects on oocytes and granulosa cells; they also promote recruitment of theca cells from the surrounding stromal/interstitial cell population. Stromal/interstitial cells and theca cells secrete BMP-4 and BMP-7, which promote follicle activation and survival. GDF-9 and/or BMP-15 secreted by the oocyte of the activated follicle promote granulosa cell proliferation, KL expression and theca formation. Granulosa cells of growing follicles secrete AMH that appears to act as a ‘brake on primordial follicle recruitment (Knight and Glister 2006). Foxo3a (FKHRL1), a member of the FOXO subfamily of forkhead transcription factors, has been implicated in the regulation of follicle activation. It has been indicated that Foxo3a functions at the earliest stages of follicular growth as a suppressor of follicular activation (Castrillon et al. 2003). It was suggested that Foxo3a serves an essential role by suppressing the growth of primordial follicles, thereby preserving them until later in life (John et al. 2007). It was shown that Foxo3a -/-ovaries contained markedly elevated numbers of early growing follicles, and this extensive of follicular growth in Foxo3a -/- females resulted in the progression of increased numbers of follicles to more advanced stages of follicular development and this misregulation of this process can lead to premature ovarian failure (Castrillon et al. 2003). Kit ligand (KL) is produced by the granulosa cells of developing ovaries (Manova et al. 1993; Ismail et al. 1996) and KL receptors (c-kit) are present on oocytes and theca cells (Manova et al. 1990). C-kit is expressed at the surface of mammalian oocytes at all stages of follicular development in postnatal ovaries of the mouse, the rat and humans (Driancourt et al. 2000; Horie et al. 1991; Manova et al. 1990; Orr-Urtreger et al. 1990) and its only known ligand, Kit-ligand (KL), which is also referred to as stem cell factor (SCF). KL acts to recruit theca cells from surrounding ovarian stroma during folliculogenesis (Parrott and Skinner 2000). Therfore, KL is thought to act as a signal from the granulosa cells around primordial follicles to the oocyte and surrounding stroma to promote the events of the primordial to primary follicle transition (Parrott and Skinner 1999). In this study (Parrott and Skinner 1999), treatment of in vitro cultured follicles from postnatal ovaries from 4 da y old rats, with KL dramatically induced the development of primordial follicles, but was completely blocked by the Kit antibody ACK2. 1.4 Follicle development Follicular development is regulated by both endocrine and intraovarin mechanisms which co-ordinate the processes of somatic cell proliferation and differentiation (Moley and Schreiber 1995). The basic functional unit in the ovary is the ovarian follicle that is composed of somatic cells and developing oocyte. The two primary somatic cell types are the theca cells and granulosa cells. These two somatic cell types are the site of action and synthesis of a number of hormone that promote a complex regulation of follicular development. The prolifetation of these two cell types is in part responsible for the development of the antral ovarian follicle. At the same time, the oocyte is undergoing developmental changes necessary to allow the resumption of meiosis after the preovulatory surge of gonadotrophins (Montgomery et al. 2001). This regulation occurs according to endocrine principles, involving hormones such as pituitary gonadotropins , ovarian steroids and locally produced factors that act either on the cell that produces them (autocrine) or on neighbouring cells (paracrine) (Salha et al. 1998). Ovarian follicular development is a long process which can take around 6 months from the initiation of growth of primordial follicles until development of a preovulatory follicle in humans, cattle and sheep (Lussier et al. 1987; Cahill and Mauleon 1980) and around 4 months in pigs (Morbeck et al. 1992). The majority of this time is spent in the pre-antral stages of development. Already at this stage, a considerable proportion of growing follicles fail to survive and they degenerate through a process termed follicular atresia. Observations in humans and in animals suggest that apoptosis is the mechanism of follicular atresia (Tilly 1996; Kaipia and Hsueh 1997). In women, the dominant follicle orginates from primordial follicle that was recruited to grow almost 1 year earlier Folliculogenesis can be divided into two stages: the gonadotropin-independent (preantral) and gonadotropin-dependent (antral or Graafian) periods (Erickson and Shimasaki 2000). Locally produced growth factors are critically involved in controlling preantral follicle development during the gonadotropin-independent period. After antraum formation, the follicle becomes dependent on FSH stimulation for continued growth and development. Interestingly, it was discovered that the process of folliculogenesis is controled by growth factors secreted by the oocyte (Matzuk 2000). Five growth factors have been identified in mamalian oocytes: growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) (McGrath et al. 1995), bone morphogenetic protein -15 (BMP-15) (Dube et al. 1998; Laitinen et al. 1998), bone morphogenetic protein -6 (BMP-6) (Knight and Glister 2006), transforming growth factor -ÃŽ ²2 ( TGF-ÃŽ ²2) (Schmid et al. 1994), and fibroblast growth factor-8 (FGF-8) (Valve et al. 1997). Experiments with knockout mice have demonstrated that in the absence of GDF-9, folliculogenesis is blocked at the primary to preantral stage (Dong et al. 1996). Consequently, there are no Graafian follicles, no ovulations, and no pregnancies. 1.4.1 Follicular cell types and follicle classification The two primary somatic cell types in the ovarian follicle are the theca cells and granulosa cells. These two somatic cell types are the site of action and synthesis of a number of hormones that are involved in the complete regulation of follicular development. 1.4.1.1 Granulosa cells Granulosa cells are the primary somatic cell type in the ovary that provides a physical support of the oocyte and mediated signals between the oocyte, outer theca cells and endocrine hormone. Regulation of granulosa cell differentiation during folliculogenesis requires the actions of a number of hormones and growth factors. Specific receptors have been demonstrated on granulosa cells for gonadotropins follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) (Richards and Midgley, Jr. 1976). In addition, receptors have been found for factors such as insulin-like growth factor (IGF) (Adashi 1998) epidermal growth factor (EGF) (Vlodavsky et al. 1978) and anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) (Josso et al. 2001). Actions of these hormones and growth factors on granulosa cells vary with the stage of differentiation. Follicular growth and steroidogenesis are dependent on the coordinated actions of FSH and LH with their receptors on granulosa cells and thecal cells of ovarian follicles. Both granulosal and thecal cells are involved in production of estradiol-17ÃŽ ² (two cell/two gonadotropin model which is well accepted for many species). 1.4.1.2 Theca cells Another important cell type in the ovary is the ovarian theca cell. These are differentiated stromal cells that surround the follicle and have also been termed theca interstitial cells (Erickson and Case 1983). The thecal cells can be distinguished as two distinct layers, the inner layer of cells, the theca interna has a basement membrane separating it from the outmost layer of granulosa cells. The theca interna is a highly vascular layer. One of the major functions of theca cells in species such as the cow, human and rodent is the secretion of androgens (Fortune and Armstrong 1977). At the primordial stage, no theca cells are present; however during the transition to the primary stage, theca cells at this stage of development are gonadotropin and steroid independent and non-steroidogenic (Braw-Tal and Roth 2005). Theca externa which is less vascularized layer and merges into the stromal tissue without clear boundaries. The ‘two-gonadotrophin, two-cell model of follicular estradiol biosynthesis According to the two-cell-two-gonadotrophin theory, the ovary has two cellular compartments that are driven independently by LH and FSH to produce ovarian steroids. Androgen production by theca cells is a function of LH, whereas aromatization of these androgens to oestradiol by granulosa cells is controlled by FSH (Gougeon 1996) (Figure 1.5). Androgen synthesis occurs in the theca interna regulated by LH, by expressing P450c17, the rate-limiting steroidogenic enzyme in androgen synthesis (Sasano et al. 1989). Theca interna are capable of synthesizing all the steroids from cholesterol to testosterone and are the major source of follicular androstenedione. In contrast, granulosa cells are the major source of follicular estradiol. Granulosa cells are intrafollicular sites of androgen metabolism (Ghersevich et al. 1994) and express aromatase P450arom (Whitelaw et al. 1992) this enzyme converts androgens to estrogens. FSH also induces granulosa cell LH receptors that are functionally coup led to aromatase. Thus, uniquely in the preovulatory follicle, both the synthesis of androgen (in theca cells) and its aromatization to estradiol (in granulosa cells) are directly regulated by LH (Fortune and Armstrong 1977). . In the theca, under the influence of LH, cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone and metabolised through a series of substrates ending in androgen production. The two-cell, two-gonadotrophin model comes into play with androgens produced by the theca cells transported to the granulosa cells where they are aromatised to oestrogens (Drummond 2006). 1.4.2 Classification of follicle stages In sheep, the stages of follicular development have been classified on the basis of the number of granulosa cells in the largest cross-section of follicles (McNatty et al. 1999), 1.4.3 Follicular development in primates 1.4.3.1 Oocyte growth and maturation Once follicles have been initiated to grow, the granulosa cells proliferate to form the different stages of follicular development (Telfer et al. 2000). During follicular activation and early development in mice, for example, the oocyte growth occurs rapidly with an approximatly 300-fold increase in volume during the 2-3 week growth phase (Wassarman and Albertini 1994), which is also accompanied by a 300-fold increase in RNA content (Sternlicht and Schultz 1981) and a 38-fold increase in absolute rate of protein synthesis (Schultz et al. 1979). These events are indicative of a period of cell growth with high metabolic activity (Wassarman and Albertini 1994). Oocytes complete most of their growth phase before the formation of a follicular antrum (Wassarman and Albertini 1994), and the increase in oocyte diameter and volume during antral follicular growth is relatively small (Eppig 2001; Wassarman and Albertini 1994). If the oocyte is to be capable of fertilization and subsequent embry onic development, it must acquire the ability to resume meiosis. Oocytes from immature follicles are unable to resume meiosis (Iwamatsu and Yanagimachi 1975) however, by the time the follicles have reached the antral stages the oocytes of most species have acquired the ability to resume meiosis (Mattioli and Barboni 2000; Telfer 1998). 1.4.3.2 Follicular growth Early in oocyte growth, a homogenous glycoprotein layer called the zona pellucida (ZP) is secreted shortly after initiation of follicular growth (Epifano and Dean 1994). It forms a translucent acellular layer separating the oocyte from the surrounding granulosa cells. However, contact between granulosa cells and the oocyte is maintained via cytoplasmic processes, which penetrate the zona and form gap junction at the oocyte surface. Progressively, follicles become secondary follicles. In addition to oocyte growth and granulosa cell proliferation, the preantral follicle also increases in size through formation and growth of ovarian stromal cells on the outer membrane of the follicle forming the theca layers of the follicle. The thecal cells can be distinguished as two distinct layers: highly vascular theca interna, surrounded by a fibrous capsule, the theca externa. The granulosa cells continue to proliferate, resulting in a further increase in follicular size. The formation of the follicular antrum marks the beginning of the antral phase of development. The appearance of an antral cavity starts with the development of small fluid-filled cavities that aggregate to form the antrum. As the follicular antrum grows, the oocyte, surrounded by a dense mass of granulosa cells called the cumulus oophorus which become suspended in fluid. It is connected to the rim of peripheral granulosa cells only by a thin stalk of cells. Attached to the zona pellucida, which surrounds the oocyte, is a small ring of granulosa cells called the corona radiata, these cells will be expelled with the oocyte during ovulation. In humans and monkeys, follicles pass from the preantral to the early antral stage at a follicular diameter between 180 and 250 ÃŽ ¼m (Koering 1983; Bomsel-Helmreich et al. 1979). Further, growth of the follicle is under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone (Gougeon 1996). The follicle is then termed a Graafian follicle. When the proper ho rmonal balance is present, normally one Graafian follicle in mono-ovulatory mammals (e.g. primates, ruminants, equine) and several ones in poly-ovulatory animals (e.g. rodent, porcine) fully develop and the oocyte matures and ovulate (Hafez 1993). 1.4.4 Regulation of follicular development 1.4.4.1 Oocytes somatic cell communication Oocyte growth is dependent on signals, growth factors and nutrients from granulosa cells; at the same time oocytes play an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of granulosa cells. Communication between oocytes and somatic cells have a crucial role in ovarian follicular development (Albertini and Barrett 2003; Eppig 2001). Several studies have shown the importance of oocyte-derived factors such as growth and differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) and bone morphogenetic protein-15 (BMP-15) in female reproduction. GDF-9 and BMP-15 promote the proliferation of granulosa cells from small antral follicles (Hayashi et al. 1999; Vitt et al. 2000; Otsuka et al. 2000). Mutation of the GDF-9 gene in mice prevented the development of somatic cells beyond the primary follicle stages (Dong et al. 1996). C-kit receptor or (Kit) is expressed at the surface of mammalian oocytes at all stages of follicular development in postnatal ovaries of the mouse, the rat and humans (Driancourt et al . 2000b; Horie et al. 1991; Manova et al. 1993). An in vivo study by (Yoshida et al. 1997) has indicated the requirement for C-kit in development of the ovarian follicle in mice. In this study, postnatal mice were injected with Kit-blocking antibody ACK2, and the first wave of follicular development was studied. The blockade of Kit signalling was found to disturb the onset of primordial follicle development, primary follicle growth and follicular fluid formation of preantral follicles (Yoshida et al. 1997). On the other hand, primordial follicle formation, ovulation and luteinization of the ovulated follicle were not affected by ACK2 (Yoshida et al. 1997). 1.4.4.2 Gonadotropins Before the onset of puberty, the normal fate of growing follicles is atresia. After puberty, stimulation by cyclic gonadotropins allows the survival and continued growth with only a limited number of antral follicles that will reach the preovulatory stage. Activation and maintenance of normal follicular function is dependent on gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) are glycoprotein, secreted by gonadotrophs in the anterior pituitary under the influence of hypothalamic GnRH (Gonadotrophin releasing hormone) neurones, which regulate the synthesis and secretion of those hormones). Gonadotropins are probably not involved in the initiation of follicle growth (Wandji et al. 1992; Fortune et al. 2000; McNatty et al. 1999). Whilst there may not be an absolute requirement for FSH at these early stages the presence of FSH receptor (FSHr) in granulosa cells of immature follicles in cow (Wandji et al. 1992), human (Zheng et al. 1 996) and sheep (Eckery et al. 1997) suggests an involvement. A role for LH in the early stages of development has not been described, although expression of LH receptor (LHr) mRNA is first detected when the theca interna forms around the granulosa cells (Bao et al. 1998; Bao and Garverick 1998). FSH and LH are involved in endocrine control of follicle development, FSH stimulates granulosa cell division and the formation of glycosaminoglycans that are essential components of antral fluid (Hillier 1991). FSH is vital for the formation of the antral cavity (Nayudu and Osborn 1992) in mouse ovarian follicles cultured in vitro. Granulosa cells are the only cells in the female body possess FSH receptors, and binding of FSH to its receptor on the cell surface altered expression of multiple genes crucial to cytoproliferation and differentiation (Richards 1994). Granulosa cell genes that are responsive to FSH include: aromatase (P450arom) the steroidogenic cytochrome P450 crucial to estrogen synthesis (Simpson et al. 1994); cholesterol side-chain cleavage (P450scc) (Richards 1994) and LH receptors (Segaloff and Ascoli 1993). FSH and LH are important factors for the proliferation and survival of follicular somatic cells and the cyclic recruitment of antral follicles. Suppression of serum gonadotropins after hypophysectomy leads to atresia and apoptosis of developing follicles (Nahum et al. 1996). Whereas FSH treatment of cultured early antral follicles prevents the spontaneous onset of follicular apoptosis (Chun et al. 1996). Although FSH is the central regulator of dominant follicle survival and development, LH signalling pathways play fundamental physiological roles. LH-dependent signal pathways in the theca interstitial cells induce changes in gene expression that are critical for estrogen production (Erickson et al. 1985). Activation of the LH receptors in theca cells leads directly to the stimulation of high levels of androstenedione production. The major physiolog ical significance of this LH response is to provide aromatase substrate to the granulosa cells where it is metabolized by P450 aromatase to E2. Additionally, the preovulatory surge of LH is responsible for ovulation and corpus luteum formation. Also, LH is essential for P4 and E2 production by the CL during the early and midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle. The hypothalamus produces and secretes luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) into a system of blood vessels that link the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. LHRH stimulates the pituitary gland by attaching to specific molecules (i.e., receptors). After the coupling of LHRH with these receptors, a cascade of biochemical events causes the pituitary gland to produce and secrete two hormones, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH and FSH are two of a class of hormones commonly known as gonadotropins. They are secreted into the general circulation and attach to receptors on the ovary, where they trigger ovulation and stimulate ovarian production of the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Adapted from (Kanis 1994) 1.4.4.3 Growth factors A number of locally produced growth factors are known to be important for follicle development, they exert paracrine communication within follicles. During preantral follicle development, growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factors (TGF) may influence folliculogenesis (van den and Zhao 2005). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (Danforth et al. 2003) and mullerian inhibitory substance (MIS) (McGee et al. 2001) have been reported to stimulate preantral follicle growth. It has been demonstrated that bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) can alter bovine granulosa cell steroidogenesis and proliferation in vitro (Glister et al. 2004). Transforming growth factor-ÃŽ ² (TGF-ÃŽ ²) superfamily contains a range of proteins, including inhibins and activins. The precise roles of these factors are not known, but it is likely that they are involved in follicular differentiation by enhancing the action of gonadotropins (Campbell and Baird 2001; Knight and Gli ster 2001; Montgomery et al. 2001). Insulin growth factors (IGF) and their receptors play important role in follicle growth and development (Poretsky et al. 1999). The IGF family comprises of IGF peptides, IGF receptors which are family of proteins called insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBP) that regulate the availability of the IGF to their target cells, and IGFBP proteases (Giudice 1992). The IGFs affect biosynthetic processes in granulosa and theca cells and have an influence on mitotic activity in the granulosa cells (Giudice 1992; Poretsky et al. 1999). Additionally, a functional link between the IGF system and FSH action has been demonstrated by the finding that IGFBP-4 is a potent inhibitor of FSH